Lebanon, Baalbek

Archaeological research in Baalbek

The urban planning and historical development of the Roman sanctuary of Baalbek. 5000 years of history in the city, a World Heritage Site since 1984.

Location

Baalbek is situated on the northern Beqaa-Plain between the mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon.

History

	The roman sancutary of Baalbek

The area of the modern town of Baalbek was first settled at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. A tell with remnants of houses was discovered under the well-preserved temple of Jupiter. Yet very few investigations have been carried out until now. Probably in the 1st century BC, during the later part of Seleucid domination, the local Arab Ituraeans built a large sanctuary over the ancient site. With the founding of the Roman Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus in 15 BC, roman veterans were also settled in Baalbek. The sanctuary was rebuilt following a new plan and in accordance with a previously unknown monumentality. First the temple for Iupiter Heliopolitanus is built, followed in the 2nd c. AD by the adjacent temple known today as "Temple of Bacchus", and finally, in the 3rd c. AD, the so called "Temple of Venus". Although during the 4th - 7th c. AD Baalbek saw the construction of several Christian churches, the old cults were only slowly abandoned. Baalbek was incorporated in the Islamic Empire in 635 AD, and in the 12th-14th centuries AD the preserved temple areas were transformed into a large fortress, which served the Sultan's family of Ayyubid and Mameluke Damascus as a stronghold against the Crusader states. After its conquest by the Ottomans in 1517 the importance of Baalbek declined, and the 17th-19th c. are marked by an increasing impoverishment. Only in the second half of the 19th c. Baalbek witnessed a new surge in construction work in connection with the renewed interest in the sanctuary and the increase in tourism. At the beginning of the 20th c. Baalbek had a population of around 5000 people, Shiite and Sunnite Muslims as well as different Christian communities. The different neighborhoods of the town were dominated by these religious communities, but during the civil war these traditional structures changed significantly. 

Objectives

The Roman-occidental artistic style is a specific characteristic of the Roman sanctuary of Baalbek. This is especially visible in the rendering of architecture and architectural decoration. On the other hand, a more detailed study reveals clearly oriental cult practices. Traditions going back to the Bronze and Iron Ages as well as continuities in oriental-Roman cult traditions till the end of Late Antiquity can be established. Consequently, there is hardly any site in the Near East that could better represent the symbiosis of occidental and oriental cult practice and cult architecture than Baalbek.
At all times, the settlement seems to have been primarily dependent upon the development of the sanctuary; its participation in commercial networks and the development of a marketplace function cannot be understood without the expansion and internationalisation of the sanctuary. In this specific economical dependence ancient Baalbek resembles other religious pilgrimage centres of today.
The current project aims at investigating the topographical, urban, economic and social evolution of the sanctuary and the town over a time span of 3000 years. The interdisciplinary cooperation of specialists in Near Eastern archaeology, classical archaeology, ancient history, building archaeology, geodesy, hydrology, geomorphology and oriental studies will enable the documentation and scientific analysis of the wealth of material remains hitherto unearthed in Baalbek, as well as research programs on the quarries and the historical rural neighborhood around Baalbek. At this stage no new excavations are planned. 

History of Research

Baalbek and its ancient building remains have long been known. Arab historiographers and geographers described the Roman buildings and ruins as early as the 9th century AD and European travellers since the 16th century. The recurrent impression was always amazement of the monumentality and the rich architectural decoration of the sanctuary. The first scientific work on the sanctuary were made in 1757 by the English James Dawkins and Robert Wood, and in 1785 by the French Louis François Cassas. In the 19th century Baalbek became a place of frequent visit by travelling artists, photographers, poets and scholars. The most prominent visitor was the German emperor Wilhelm II on November 10-11, 1898. He gave the decisive impulse that initiated excavations undertaken by German scholars between 1900 and 1904. In the 1920s the Department of Antiquities of the French mandatory government continued the excavation and restorative work; since 1945 the Lebanese Direction Générale des Antiquités (DGA) has continued these operations. After the end of the civil war in 1991 archaeological investigations could again be envisioned; in 1997 a co-operation program was inaugurated between the DGA and the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI). Since 2001 architectural and archaeological remains uncovered during excavations in the 1960s and 1970s are being documented and analyzed. 

Previous Activities

	The six preserved columns of the temple of Jupiter
	The so-called temple of Bacchus, 2nd c. AD
	The roman processional stairway to the temple of Mercury
	Coins of the elder Philippus with representation of the processional stairway

Excavations since 1898 have concentrated on the three temples that are in close proximity and all inter-related.
The sanctuary of Jupiter, one of the largest temple complexes in the Roman world, consisted of a temple with two successive courtyards. Huge substructures or rather podiums were constructed in the whole area, in order to elevate the complex above the plain. It can be reached through a monumental stairway that leads to a level some 7 m higher than the surrounding area. A large entrance building, the Propylon, leads to the first hexagonal courtyard that was probably built as late as the 3rd century AD. From here one proceeds to the Great Courtyard, the cultic focal point with two high altar-buildings, two water basins and two free-standing columns as cultic monuments. The courtyard is surrounded by colonnaded porticoes with open rooms behind them (exedrae), parts of which are well preserved. Another staircase leads from this courtyard to the temple of Jupiter itself, which stands on a podium of 12 m height. Only six columns of the outer colonnade of this temple as well as parts of the pediment are preserved.
A far better state of preservation is displayed by the so-called temple of Bacchus, which was constructed in the 2nd century AD. It was also erected on a podium, but is lower in height. The temple is preserved up to the level of the roof and conveys a good impression of the rich architectural decorations of the temples of Baalbek. Its supposed dedication to Bacchus was based on two reliefs flanking the stairway leading up to the cella, but this attribution remains open to discussion.
The third temple, the so-called temple of Venus, was - just as the temples of Jupiter and Bacchus - always visible and in use for the last 1800 years. It is a small round temple with "baroque", concave outer walls that was constructed in the 3rd century AD. Although its attribution to the goddess Venus is certainly wrong, this traditional name will be used until a more secure identification is possible. The excavation of these three buildings as well as an initial documentation of the preserved material remains was the objective of the first German expedition 1900-1904.

In the following decades, French colleagues undertook conservation measures and intensified research on theological problems of the Heliopolitaean trias surrounding the three divinities Jupiter, Venus and Mercury. A Byzantine basilica, built in the 5th century AD and intruding into the Great Courtyard of the temple of Jupiter, was removed, which led to important discoveries such as the two altars.
The French excavations also revealed a processional stairway leading up Sheikh Abdallah hill, which could be attributed to the temple of Mercury, as it was depicted and correlated to him on coins of the time of the older Philippus. Thus, the position of the temple of Mercury, unknown at that time, could be determined. Under the auspices of the DGA the exploration of Sheikh Abdallah hill to the south-east was continued. Thereby, the existence of the temple could be established, although it was not excavated.

The DGA further conducted extensive fieldwork in the area of the stairway to the sanctuary of Jupiter, where a courtyard in front of the sanctuary and remnants of a colonnaded street were found at ground level. In the area of the so-called Venus temple the excavated surface was expanded considerably, and the whole temple area with its surrounding walls (temenos) and a previously unknown temple (the so-called temple of the Muses) were excavated. This temple was also surrounded by colonnaded streets leading east and south.
To the south, outside the city walls, further medieval and Roman buildings were detected and excavated in an area with the modern name of "Bustan el Khan". The hall of one building (porticus) that had collapsed during an earthquake could be completely restored. In Bustan el Khan as well a long segment of a Roman road leading south was found, along which more buildings were discovered. 

Current Work

	Glazed ceramic fragment from the 13th c. AD

Current fieldwork is being conducted in different areas of the Roman town of Baalbek. The main focus of work lies on further documentation, drawing and stratigraphic analysis of the areas and buildings that were excavated a considerable time ago, and on their comprehensive study in their urban and regional context. Fieldwork projects are carried out in the following areas:
Bustan el Khan
In the area of Bustan el Khan on the south-western fringe of Baalbek, there are several monumental buildings that date to the Roman period and were excavated by the Lebanese Department of Antiquities in the 1960s and 1970s. They were probably built in Roman Imperial times, i.e. during the Severan period, but were altered and remained in use throughout Late Antiquity. Private houses and baths are preserved from the Mameluke and early Ottoman periods. The goal of this documentation is to comprehend the function of these different buildings, their architectural history and their appearance.
First results of the current research on the building history of the Bustan el-Khan were the identification of three hitherto unknown and unpublished building complexes: a multifunctional complex consisting of a monumental Roman bath (probably built at the end of the 2nd century AD), an elongated building of which mainly the surrounding colonnaded porticoes are preserved, and finally a larger peristyle building. All of these buildings are situated along a partially preserved street that leads to the centre of Baalbek. The monumental baths (around 100 x 100 m in size) were investigated intensively from 2001 to 2003; from the entrance in the south-east several rooms opened to a palaestra and a porticus leading into the actual bathing area, of which only the substructions and few remains of the hypocausts are preserved. An odeon on the southern side of the bath complex belonged to a later building phase.
In the peristyle complex further south soundings were undertaken in 2004 in order to gain information on the different building phases and their date. At least five phases were distinguished, with a change into a monumental façade with a different orientation in the 2nd phase, and later added porticoes that gave way to the colonnaded street leading to the city. The reconstruction of this porticus indicates that corresponding buildings should be expected under the modern parking area. The orientation towards the temple of Mercury serves as an argument for a religious function of this building complex.
A small bath from the Mameluke or early Ottoman period was built on top of the north-eastern part of the bath's porticus. Between 2001-2004 it was cleaned and documented, and will partially be restored.
Area of the so-called Venus temple
In the temenos of the so-called temple of Venus additional cult buildings had been uncovered in earlier excavations. Since the summer of 2002, this area is the focus of a new investigation which will conclude with its final documentation.
In this area, which was continuously used until modern times, a second temple, the so-called temple of the Muses, as well as the temenos surrounding both temples were discovered in the 1960s and 1970s. At least four construction phases of the whole area have been detected to date. The first phase involved the construction of the temple of the Muses at an early stage of the Roman building program for the sanctuary of Baalbek. Later, the famous so-called temple of Venus was added (3rd century AD) . The temenos of both temples was then enclosed by a peribolos, which itself shows at least one major phase of repair. The porticoes outside the peribolos were oriented through a propylon towards the sanctuary of Jupiter. They already belong to a later phase to be dated into the Late Antiquity. The floors of the porticoes were raised considerably in the fourth phase and decorated with mosaics. Possibly from this time onward, certainly in the later periods, the so-called temple of Venus was used as a Christian church.
Qala'a
Two sections of the deep trench in the Great Courtyard of the temple of Jupiter east of the great altar, which was first excavated in the 1960's and only partially documented at the time, were cleaned and drawn. The finds during the cleaning process comprising pottery, bones, stone tools and soil samples were collected stratigraphically. Floors and even walls and hearths could be identified through detailed observation and provided important insights into the settlement history, which seems to go back to the Neolithic/Chalcolithic period.
Sheikh Abdallah
In Roman times a temple of Mercury stood on Sheikh Abdallah hill. Its material remains as well as the monumental stairway, emphasized by superstructures, parapets and small buildings and leading from the town to the temple, are being restudied in detail regarding their architecture and topographic situation within the ancient city area. The remains of the temple of Mercury were almost completely destroyed during the Lebanese civil war, but small parts of the temple podium were recently found in soundings. In addition, some architectural fragments can still be found scattered around their original location. The documentation of all preserved remains and traces of the temple have been going on since 2002.
Geodetical work
Geodetical surveys are being conducted in order to create a georeferenced geodetic network, into which the different older coordinates as well as new measurements can be integrated. At the same time the geometric analysis of historical maps and photographs of Baalbek are undertaken, and new solutions are proposed for problems concerning 3-dimensional digital modeling and stereo-photogrammetric analysis.
Storage depots
The study of the different storage depots where the archaeological material is preserved supplies valuable indications as to the functions of the buildings of the Roman period, Late Antiquity and Islamic times. Through the objects, their dating and their provenience the economic potential and intensity of contacts with the oriental and occidental parts of the empire can be evaluated.
Regional survey
The survey in the territory of Baalbek was started in 2004 with the aim to gain insight into the economic potential and settlement pattern of the area around ancient Heliopolis throughout its history. Due to the continuous intensive agriculture in the plain this research concentrates on the lateral valleys into the Anti-Lebanon and the lower hill-country, where numerous originally well preserved settlements and production areas were found heavily looted, probably only quite recently. In future campaigns the archaeological investigation of these settlements will be accompanied by intensive surveys as well as geomorphological and palaeobotanical research.
The ottoman town
The traditional buildings, especially from the late ottoman period, in the town of Baalbek seem to mirror older stages of urban layout and planning, and thus could provide valuable insight into the ancient city layout. Since 2002 the preserved building remains are systematically integrated into an architectural database, and selected examples are measured, photographed and described in detail. The layout and orientation of some of these buildings correspond to the original continuation of the monumental stairways coming down from the Sheikh Abdallah hill. Through the analysis of building techniques and designs models and influences on the buildings in Baalbek may be traced and dating criteria developed. One focus of this study is currently put on the area between the sanctuary of Jupiter, the area of the so-called temple of Venus and the south-eastern city area, as here the uncovered remains of medieval and antique structures can be investigated in connection with the preserved late ottoman architecture.
The GIS
In 2004 the implementation and design of a web-based GIS for the archaeological and architectural investigation of ancient Baalbek was launched. The system should provide research groups working from different locations access to all the databases of 100 years of research on the site, and integrate the new archaeological and architectural research data into a system suitable for comprehensive analysis and presentation. For the creation of the databases and the GIS-model open-source programs were favored, and their future potential for other research projects was taken into account. 

Results

	The porticus in the area of „Bustan el Khan“
	Documentation work in the area of the so-called temple of Venus

Preliminary results of the documentation of building history and geodesy led to a new hypothesis concerning the chronological sequence of the construction of the temples and their interrelationship. In the Hellenistic period the former comparatively small tell, on which there was probably already a temple building, was completely covered by the construction of the first large sanctuary. The town might have had to move to the foot of the tell. At this early stage a road axis might have been created, which led across the settlement to another important building in the quarter of Haret Beit Sulh. There, a larger than life-size statue of Venus was found in the 19th century, which has led to the assumption that in this area another monumental temple was located. The temple of Jupiter as well as the temple of Mercury were axially oriented towards this sanctuary. This held true for the later monumental temple of Jupiter in Roman times. Later, during the 2nd century AD the temple of Bacchus was built, and the dilapidated temple of the Muses hidden by a porticus. The temple of Mercury was constructed on Sheikh Abdallah hill and the city expanded to the south-west in the area of the Bustan el Khan. Only in the 3rd century AD the so-called temple of Venus, the popular name of which is certainly wrong, was built as replacement of the older so-called temple of the Muses and oriented towards the sanctuary of Jupiter. Remodeling measures inside the sanctuary of Jupiter were the last building activities that took place in Roman times. In the early Christian period the area of the so-called temple of Venus was transformed into a Christian church complex, and in the 5th century AD the large basilica was built in the Great Courtyard of the sanctuary of Jupiter. Finally, in the 12th/13th centuries AD the religious function of this complex was abandoned, as the remains of the sanctuary of Jupiter were transformed into a defensive fortress, which offered enough room for the lavishly furnished palace for the governor. At the same time the town of Baalbek around the fortress seems to have expanded for the first time outside the boundaries of the ancient city wall. In the Bustan el Khan outside of the medieval city wall new building activities, namely of private dwellings and baths, are evidenced. 

Cooperation

The current work is being carried out as a cooperative project between the Direction Générale des Antiquités and the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut. The following Lebanese and German Institutions are represented through collaborators:
1. Lebanese University, Tripoli School of Architecture (Dipl.-Ing. Jean Yasmine)
2. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Architekturreferat (Dipl.-Ing. Heike Lehmann)
3. Brandenburgische Technische Universität Cottbus, Fakultät für Architektur, Bauingenieurwesen und Stadtplanung: Lehrstuhl für Baugeschichte (Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Rheidt) und Lehrstuhl für Vermessungskunde (Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Ritter, Dipl.-Ing. Frank Henze)
4. Universität Karlsruhe, Institut für Baugeschichte (Dipl.-Ing. Friederike Hoebel)
5. Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Seminar für Klassische Archäologie (Prof. Dr. Konrad Hitzl) 

Contact

Dr. phil. Margarete van Ess

Vorderasiatische Altertumskunde
Telefon: 03018-7711-0
Telefax: 03018-7711-189
Email: orient@dainst.de

Bibliography

Th. Wiegand (ed.), Baalbek. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen in den Jahren 1898-1905 Band I-III (1921-25); P. Collart - P. Coupel, L'autel monumental de Baalbek (1951); Liban - Les Dossiers de l'Archéologie 12 (1975); N. Jidejian, Baalbek: Heliopolis, "City of the Sun" (1975/1998); F. Ragette, Baalbek (1980); M. van Ess, Heliopolis - Baalbek, Forschen in Ruinen 1898 - 1998 (Beirut 1998); A. Neuwirth - T. Scheffler - H. Sader (eds.), Baalbek: Image and Monument 1898 - 1998, Beiruter Texte und Studien 69 (Beirut 1998); M. van Ess - T. Weber (eds.), Baalbek. Im Bann römischer Monumentalarchitektur (Mainz, Philipp von Zabern 1999); M. van Ess with contributions from T. Bunk, V. Daiber, B. Fischer-Genz, F. Henze, K. Hitzl, F. Hoebel, B. Ritter, H. Wienholz, "Archaeological Research in Baalbek. A preliminary report on the 2001-2003 seasons", Bulletin d'Archologie et d'Architecture Libanaise (BAAL) 7, 2003: 109-144.

For further bibliographical references, especially on religion, art history and other scientific topics see: M. van Ess - T. Weber (eds.), Baalbek. Im Bann römischer Monumentalarchitektur (Mainz, Philipp von Zabern 1999.