Lebanon, Baalbek

Archaeological research in Baalbek

The urban planning and historical development of the Roman sanctuary of Baalbek. 5000 years of history in the city, a World Heritage Site since 1984.

Location

Baalbek is situated on the northern Beqaa-Plain between the mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon.

History

	The roman sanctuary of Baalbek

The area of the modern town of Baalbek was first settled at the end of the 8th millennium BC. The tell preserved underneath the temple of Jupiter was almost continuously settled until the Hellenistic period. Probably in the 1st century BC, during the later part of Seleucid domination, the local Arab Ituraeans built a large sanctuary over the ancient site. With the founding of the Roman Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus in 15 BC, roman veterans were also settled in Baalbek. The sanctuary was rebuilt following a new plan and in accordance with a previously unknown monumentality. First the temple for Iupiter Heliopolitanus is built, followed in the 2nd c. AD by the adjacent temple known today as "Temple of Bacchus", and finally, in the 3rd c. AD, the so called "Temple of Venus". Although during the 4th - 7th c. AD Baalbek saw the construction of several Christian churches, the old cults were only slowly abandoned. Baalbek was incorporated in the Islamic Empire in 635 AD, and in the 12th-14th centuries AD the preserved temple areas were transformed into a large fortress, which served the Sultan's family of Ayyubid and Mameluke Damascus as a stronghold against the Crusader states. After its conquest by the Ottomans in 1517 the importance of Baalbek declined, and the 17th-19th c. are marked by an increasing impoverishment. Only in the second half of the 19th c. Baalbek witnessed a new surge in construction work in connection with the renewed interest in the sanctuary and the increase in tourism. At the beginning of the 20th c. Baalbek had a population of around 5000 people, Shiite and Sunnite Muslims as well as different Christian communities. The different neighborhoods of the town were dominated by these religious communities, but during the civil war these traditional structures changed significantly. 

Objectives

In comparison to other roman temple complexes in the Near East, the Roman sanctuary of Baalbek shows a marked roman-occidental artistic style. This is especially visible in the rendering of architecture and architectural decoration. The details, on the other hand, reveal much more clearly oriental cult practices than expected. Traditions going back to the Bronze and Iron Ages as well as continuities in oriental-Roman cult traditions till the end of Late Antiquity can be established. Consequently, there is hardly any site in the Near East that could better represent the symbiosis of occidental and oriental cult practice and cult architecture than Baalbek.
At all times, the settlement seems to have been primarily dependent upon the development of the sanctuary; its participation in commercial networks and the development of a marketplace function cannot be understood without the expansion and internationalisation of the sanctuary. In this specific economical dependence ancient Baalbek resembles other religious pilgrimage centres of today.
The current project aims at investigating the topographical, urban, economic and social evolution of the sanctuary and the town over a time span of 9000 years. Especially interesting is the earliest phase of the settlement as well as periods of radical changes, such as the transformation of the settlement from the pre-Roman period to the Roman period, and the transition from Late Antiquity to the Islamic medieval periods. The interdisciplinary cooperation of specialists in Near Eastern archaeology, classical archaeology, ancient history, architectural history, geodesy, geophysics, geomorphology and oriental studies will enable the documentation and scientific analysis of the wealth of material remains hitherto unearthed in Baalbek, as well as research programs on the quarries and the economic hinterland of Baalbek. At this stage no new excavations are planned. 

History of Research

Baalbek and its ancient building remains have long been visible. Arab historiographers and geographers described the Roman buildings and ruins as early as the 9th century AD as well as European travelers since the 16th century. The recurrent subject was always amazement vis-à-vis of the monumentality and the rich architectural decoration of the sanctuary. The first scientific work on the sanctuary were made in 1757 by the English James Dawkins and Robert Wood, and in 1785 by the French Louis François Cassas. In the 19th century Baalbek became a place frequently visited by traveling artists, photographers, poets and scholars. The most prominent visitor in the 19th century was the German emperor William II on November 10-11, 1898. He initiated excavations undertaken by German scholars between 1900 and 1904. In the 1920s the Department of Antiquities of the French mandate government continued the excavation and restorative work; since 1945 the Lebanese Direction Générale des Antiquités (DGA) has continued these operations. After the end of the civil war in 1991 archaeological investigations could again be envisioned; in 1997 a co-operation program was inaugurated between the DGA and the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI). Since the summer of 2001 architectural and archaeological remains uncovered during excavations in the 1960s and 1970s are being documented and analyzed. In addition, a survey of the architectural remains of the Ottoman houses of Baalbek and a field survey in the surrounding countryside are carried out. 

Previous Activities

	The six preserved columns of the temple of Jupiter
	The so-called temple of Bacchus, 2nd c. AD
	The roman processional stairway to the temple of Mercury
	Coins of the elder Philippus with representation of the processional stairway

Excavations since 1898 have concentrated on the three temples that are in close proximity and all inter-related.
The sanctuary of Jupiter, one of the largest temple complexes in the Roman world, consisted of a temple with two successive courtyards. Huge substructures or rather podiums were constructed in the whole area, in order to elevate the complex above the plain. It can be reached through a monumental stairway that leads to a level some 7 m higher than the surrounding area. A large entrance building, the Propylon, leads to the first hexagonal courtyard that was probably built as late as the 3rd century AD. From here one proceeds to the Great Courtyard, the cultic focal point with two high altar-buildings, two water basins and two small buildings as cultic monuments. The courtyard is surrounded by colonnaded porticoes with open rooms behind them (exedrae), parts of which are well preserved. Another staircase leads from this courtyard to the temple of Jupiter itself, which stands on a podium of 12 m height. Only six columns of the outer colonnade of this temple as well as parts of the pediment are preserved.
A far better state of preservation is displayed by the so-called temple of Bacchus, which was constructed in the 2nd century AD with a similar layout next to the temple of Jupiter. It was also erected on a podium, but is lower in height. The temple is preserved up to the level of the roof support and conveys a good impression of the rich architectural decorations of the temples of Baalbek. Its supposed dedication to Bacchus was based on two reliefs flanking the stairway leading up to the cella, but this attribution remains open to discussion.
The third temple, the so-called temple of Venus, was - just as the temples of Jupiter and Bacchus - always visible and in use for the last 1800 years. It is a small round temple with "baroque", concave outer walls constructed in the 3rd century AD. Although its attribution to the goddess Venus is certainly wrong, this traditional name will be used until a more secure identification is possible. The excavation of these three buildings as well as an initial documentation of the preserved material remains in the old city of Baalbek was the objective of the first German expedition 1900-1904.

In the following decades, French colleagues undertook conservation measures and intensified research on theological problems of the Heliopolitanean trias consisting of the three divinities Jupiter, Venus and Mercury. A Byzantine basilica, built in the 5th century AD into the Great Courtyard of the temple of Jupiter, was removed, which led to the important discovery of the two altars.
The monumental processional stairway leading up Sheikh Abdallah hill was studied in more detail; it could be attributed to the temple of Mercury, as it was depicted and named on coins of the time of the older Philippus. Thus, the position of the temple of Mercury, unknown at that time, could be determined. Under the auspices of the DGA the exploration of Sheikh Abdallah hill to the south-east was continued. Thereby, the existence of the temple could be established and its location determined, although it was not excavated.

Since the end of the 1950ies, the DGA conducted extensive fieldwork in Baalbek. In the area of the stairway to the sanctuary of Jupiter a courtyard in front of the sanctuary and remnants of a colonnaded street at ground level were discovered. In the area of the so-called Venus temple the excavated surface was expanded considerably, and the whole temple area with its surrounding walls (temenos) and a previously unknown temple (the so-called temple of the Muses) was excavated. This temple was also surrounded by colonnaded streets leading east and south.
To the south, outside the city walls, further medieval and Roman buildings were detected and excavated in an area with the modern name of "Bustan el Khan". The hall of one building (porticus) that had collapsed during an earthquake could be completely restored. Also in Bustan el Khan a long segment of a Roman road leading south was found, along which additional ancient buildings were discovered. 

Current Work

	The porticus in the area of „Bustan el Khan“
	The area what is called Venus-Area
	Survey in the territory of Baalbek
	Beit Nassif

Current fieldwork is being conducted in different areas of the Roman town of Baalbek. The main focus of work lies on further documentation, drawing and stratigraphic analysis of the areas and buildings that were excavated a considerable time ago, and on their comprehensive study in their urban and regional context. Furthermore studies on the history of scientific research in Baalbek as well as a reassessment of old archive material was initiated in Germany. Work is carried out in the following areas:
Bustan el Khan
In the area of Bustan el Khan on the south-western fringe of Baalbek there are several monumental buildings dating to the Roman period that were excavated by the Lebanese Department of Antiquities in the 1960s and 1970s. They were probably built in Roman Imperial times, i.e. during the Severan period, but were altered and remained in use throughout Late Antiquity. Private houses and baths are preserved from the Mameluke and early Ottoman periods. The goal of this documentation is to comprehend the function of these different buildings, their architectural history and their appearance.
First results of the current research on the building history of the Bustan el-Khan were the identification of three hitherto unknown and unpublished building complexes: a multifunctional complex consisting of a monumental Roman bath (probably built at the end of the 2nd century AD), an elongated banquet hall and a larger building with a peristyle courtyard to the south of the area. All of these buildings are situated along a partially preserved street that leads to the centre of Baalbek. The monumental baths (around 100 x 100 m in size) were investigated intensively from 2001 to 2003 and again in 2008; from a courtyard with porticus the entrance in the main axis of the building leads into the actual bathing area, of which only the substructions, water basins and few remains of the hypocausts are preserved. An odeon on the southern side of the bath complex was probably built towards the end of the 4th c. AD.
In the banquet hall further south soundings were undertaken in 2004 and 2005 in order to gain information on the different building phases and their date. At least five phases were distinguished, with a change into a monumental façade with a different orientation in the 2nd phase, and later added porticoes that gave way to the colonnaded street leading to the city. Remains of podia are preserved on the inside have led to the interpretation as a banquet hall, possibly oriented towards the temple of Mercury and connected to its cult. The reconstruction of this porticus indicates that corresponding buildings should be expected under the modern parking area.
A small bath from the Mameluke or early Ottoman period was built on top of the north-eastern part of the bath's porticus. Between 2001-2004 it was cleaned and documented, and will partially be restored.
Area of the so-called Venus temple
In the temenos of the so-called temple of Venus additional cult buildings had been uncovered in the excavations of the 1960ies and 70ies. Since the summer of 2002, this area is the focus of a new investigation which will conclude with its final documentation.
In this area a second temple, the so-called temple of the Muses, as well as the temenos surrounding both temples were discovered in the 1960s and 1970s. At least four construction phases of the whole area have been detected to date. The first phase involved the construction of the temple of the Muses at an early stage of the Roman building program for the sanctuary of Baalbek. Later, the famous so-called temple of Venus was added (3rd century AD) and the porticoes surrounding the two temples was oriented towards the temple of Jupiter through a propylon. They already belong to a later phase probably to be dated to Late Antiquity. The floors of the porticoes were raised considerably in the fourth phase and decorated with Byzantine mosaics. Possibly from this time onward the so-called temple of Venus was used as a Christian church.
Qala'a
In 2004 and 2005, the north, east and south sections of the deep trench in the Great Courtyard of the temple of Jupiter east of the great altar, which was first excavated in the 1960's and left undocumented at the time, were cleaned and drawn. The finds during the cleaning process comprising pottery, bones, stone tools and soil samples were collected stratigraphically. In the section floors and even walls and hearths could be identified through detailed observation and provided important insights into the settlement history. The oldest finds are dated by C14 analysis to the end of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period around 7200 BCE. The settlement mound was only abandoned in the late Hellenistic period due to its transformation into a monumental sanctuary and was settled almost continuously over a period of nearly 7000 years. The architectural history of the relatively well-known sanctuary of Jupiter in the Qalaa is studied in detail since 2005. The documentation of numerous archaeological and architectural features through soundings and measurements in combination with a new analysis of constructional details have yielded a surprising wealth of new insights into the architectural layout and morphology of the sanctuary. As a result, four monumental building phases can be distinguished: the buildings from the pre-roman period forming a gigantic T-shaped terrace, which was later used as foundation of the temple of Jupiter, are now well understood in their dimension and geometry. Through new tachymetrical measurements in the substructions of the Great Courtyard the planning and implementation of the extensive building program of the early imperial period can be easily distinguished from later construction phases. Changes in the Great Courtyard and the construction of the so-called hexagonal courtyard in the middle imperial period indicate two later changes in plan, which successively enlarged the sanctuary towards the east.
Sheikh Abdallah
In antiquity the temple of Mercury stood on the hill of Sheikh Abdallah southeast of the city. Its material remains as well as the monumental stairway, emphasized by superstructures, parapets and small buildings and leading from the town to the temple, are being restudied in detail regarding their architecture and topographic situation within the ancient city area. The remains of the temple of Mercury were almost completely destroyed during the Lebanese civil war, but during our investigation between 2002 and 2005 small parts of the temple podium and the propylon were found in soundings. In addition, some ornamented architectural fragments of the temple can still be found scattered around their original location.
Geodetical work
Geodetical surveys are being conducted in order to create a precise archaeological geodetic network, into which the different older coordinates as well as new measurements can be integrated. It also enables the integration and geometric analysis of historical maps and photographs. For the different projects of 3D-terrain models and the documentation of individual architectural fragments methods such as photogrammetry and georectification of aerial photographs of Baalbek are used, and new tools for stereo-photogrammetric analysis are developed and tested.
Geophysical work
Geophysical prospection methods were used in order to gain information on archaeological structures hidden in areas that are not accessible for excavation. In spring 2008 geoelectric resistivity measurements were undertaken in the sanctuary of Jupiter, the so called Venus area and the Bustan el-Khan. These provided substantial information on the geological formation of these areas and underneath the monumental buildings.
Storage depots
The study of the different storage depots where the archaeological material is preserved supplies valuable indications as to the functions of the buildings of the Roman period, Late Antiquity and Islamic times. Through the objects, their dating and their provenience the economic potential and intensity of contacts of the sanctuary with the oriental and occidental parts of the empire can be evaluated.
Regional survey
The survey in the territory of Baalbek was started in 2004 with the aim to gain insight into the economic potential and settlement pattern of the area around ancient Heliopolis throughout its history. Due to the continuous intensive agriculture and demographic continuity in the plain this research concentrates on the lateral valleys into the Anti-Lebanon mountains and the lower foothills, where numerous originally well preserved settlements and production sites were found, unfortunately heavily looted. The archaeological survey work was accompagnied by geomorphological studies on the evolution of the landscape. Through the analysis of satellite and aerial photographs agricultural fields and additional ancient sites could be identified. The survey includes a large-scale prospection of ancient quarries around Baalbek, which was carried out with archaeological and topographical methods.
The ottoman town
The traditional buildings, especially from the late ottoman period, in the town of Baalbek seem to mirror older stages of urban layout and planning, and thus could provide valuable insight into the ancient city layout. Since 2002 the preserved building remains are systematically integrated into an architectural database, and selected examples are measured, photographed and described in detail. The layout and orientation of some of these buildings correspond to the original continuation of the monumental stairways coming down from the Sheikh Abdallah hill. Through the analysis of building techniques and designs models and influences on the buildings in Baalbek may be traced and dating criteria developed. One focus of this study is currently put on the area between the sanctuary of Jupiter, the area of the so-called temple of Venus and the south-eastern city area, as here the uncovered remains of medieval and antique structures can be investigated in connection with the preserved late ottoman architecture.
The GIS
In 2004 the implementation and design of a web-based GIS for the archaeological, historical and architectural investigation of ancient Baalbek was launched. The system should provide research groups working from different locations access to all the databases of 100 years of research on the site, and integrate the new archaeological and architectural research data into a system suitable for comprehensive analysis and presentation. For the creation of the databases and the GIS-model open-source programs were favored, and their future potential for other research projects was taken into account.
Reassessment of archive materials
In cooperation with the Münzkabinett of the Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin all coins from Baalbek in their collection, coins minted in Heliopolis as well as those found in the city, were published in an online catalogue. 

Results

Preliminary results of the documentation of building history and geodesy led to a new hypothesis concerning the chronological sequence of the construction of the temples and their interrelationship. In the Hellenistic period the former comparatively small tell, on which there was probably already a temple building, was completely covered by the construction of the first large sanctuary. The town might have had to move to the foot of the tell. At this early stage a road axis might have been created, which led across the settlement to another important religious building in the quarter of Haret Beit Sulh. There, a larger than life-size statue of Venus was found in the 19th century, which has led to the assumption that in this area a sanctuary of Venus might have been located. The temple of Jupiter as well as the so-called temple of the Muses were axially oriented towards this hypothetical temple. This held true for the later monumental temple of Jupiter in Roman times. Later, during the 2nd century AD the temple of Bacchus was built, and the dilapidated temple of the Muses hidden by a porticus. The temple of Mercury was constructed on Sheikh Abdallah hill and the city expanded to the south-west in the area of the Bustan el Khan. Only in the 3rd century AD the so-called temple of Venus, the popular name of which is certainly wrong, was built as replacement of the older so-called temple of the Muses and oriented towards the sanctuary of Jupiter. Remodeling measures inside the sanctuary of Jupiter represent the last building activities that took place in Roman times. In the early Christian period the area of the so-called temple of Venus was transformed into a Christian church complex, and in the 5th century AD the large basilica was built in the Great Courtyard of the sanctuary of Jupiter. Finally, in the 12th/13th centuries AD the religious function of this complex was abandoned, as the remains of the sanctuary of Jupiter were transformed into a defensive fortress, which offered enough room for the lavishly furnished palace of the governor. At the same time the town of Baalbek around the fortress seems to have expanded for the first time outside the boundaries of the ancient city wall. In the Bustan el Khan outside of the medieval city wall new building activities, namely of private dwellings and baths, take place. 

Cooperation

The current work is being carried out as a cooperative project between the Direction Générale des Antiquités, the German Archaeological Institute and the Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus/Department of Building History. The project has been funded since 2005 by the German Science Foundation (DFG). The following Lebanese and German Institutions are represented through collaborators:
1. Lebanese University, Tripoli School of Architecture (Dipl.-Ing. Jean Yasmine)
2. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Naturwissenschaftliches Referat
3. Brandenburgische Technische Universität Cottbus, Lehrstuhl für Vermessungskunde (Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Ritter, Dipl.-Ing. Frank Henze)
4. Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Lehrstuhl für Klassische Archäologie (Prof. Dr. Konrad Hitzl)
5. Münzkabinett der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin  

Contact

Dr. phil. Margarete van Ess

Telefon: 03018-7711-0
Telefax: 03018-7711-189
Email: orient@dainst.de

Bibliography

Th. Wiegand (ed.), Baalbek. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen in den Jahren 1898-1905 Band I-III (1921-25); P. Collart - P. Coupel, L'autel monumental de Baalbek (1951); Liban - Les Dossiers de l'Archéologie 12 (1975); N. Jidejian, Baalbek: Heliopolis, "City of the Sun" (1975/1998); F. Ragette, Baalbek (1980); M. van Ess, Heliopolis - Baalbek, Forschen in Ruinen 1898 - 1998 (Beirut 1998); A. Neuwirth - T. Scheffler - H. Sader (eds.), Baalbek: Image and Monument 1898 - 1998, Beiruter Texte und Studien 69 (Beirut 1998); M. van Ess - T. Weber (eds.), Baalbek. Im Bann römischer Monumentalarchitektur (Mainz, Philipp von Zabern 1999); M. van Ess with contributions from T. Bunk, V. Daiber, B. Fischer-Genz, F. Henze, K. Hitzl, F. Hoebel, B. Ritter, H. Wienholz, "Archaeological Research in Baalbek. A preliminary report on the 2001-2003 seasons", Bulletin d'Archologie et d'Architecture Libanaise (BAAL) 7, 2003: 109-144. M. van Ess - K. Rheidt, Archaeological Research in Baalbek. A preliminary report on the 2004 and 2005 seasons, BAAL 9, 2005, 117-146.; V. Daiber, Baalbek: die mittelalterlichen Feinwaren, Orient-Archäologie (OrA) 18, 2006, 111-166; M. van Ess (with contributions from J. Abdul Massih, N. Chahine, V. Daiber, H. Ehrig, M. van Ess, S. Feix, B. Fischer-Genz, H. Genz, F. Henze, K. Hitzl, F. Hoebel, H. Lehmann, D. Lohmann, J. Nádor, K. Rheidt, D. Rokitta-Krumnow, A. Seif, F. Wakim, H. Wienholz, J. Yasmine), Baalbek/Heliopolis. Results of the archaeological and architectural research 2002-2005, BAAL Hors-Série IV, 2008.

For further bibliographical references, especially on religion, art history and other scientific topics see: M. van Ess - T. Weber (eds.), Baalbek. Im Bann römischer Monumentalarchitektur (Mainz, Philipp von Zabern 1999.